Kirundi, also known as Rundi, is a Bantu language spoken by some 9 million people in Burundi and adjacent parts of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as in blogger.com is the official language of Burundi. Kirundi is mutually intelligible with Kinyarwanda, an official language of Rwanda, and the two form part of the wider dialect continuum known as Chewa (also known as Nyanja, / ˈ n j æ n dʒ ə /) is a Bantu language spoken in much of Southern, Southeast and East Africa, namely the countries of Malawi and Zambia, where it is an official language, and Mozambique and Zimbabwe where it is a recognised minority language. The noun class prefix chi-is used for languages, so the language is usually called Chichewa Реакция американского Управления по борьбе с наркотиками (dea) на вышедшее из-под контроля использование mdma привела к решению о запрете вещества и помещении его в Список i [en] в году, что вызвало протест группы
Chewa language - Wikipedia
The noun class prefix chi- is used for languages, [3] so the language is usually called Chichewa and Chinyanja spelled Cinianja in Mozambique. In Malawi, the name was officially changed from Chinyanja to Chichewa in at the insistence of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda himself of the Chewa peopleand this is still the name most commonly used in Malawi today.
Chewa belongs to the same language group Guthrie Zone N as TumbukaSena [6] and Nsenga. Chewa is the most widely known language of Malawispoken mostly in the Central and Southern Regions of that country.
It is also spoken in Mozambiqueespecially in the provinces of Tete and Niassaas well as in Zimbabwe where, according to some estimates, it ranks as the third-most widely used local language, after Shona and Northern Ndebele. The Chewa were a branch of the Maravi people who lived in the Eastern Province of Zambia and in northern Mozambique as far south as the River Zambezi from the 16th century or earlier.
The name "Chewa" in the form Chévas itself is first recorded by António Gamittowho at the age of 26 in was appointed as second-in-command of an expedition from Tete to the court of King Kazembe in what is now Zambia. His route kele phd thesis him through the country of King Undi west of the Dzalanyama mountains, across a corner of present-day Malawi and on into Zambia.
According to Gamitto, the Malawi or Maravi people Maraves were those ruled by King Undi south of the Chambwe stream not far south of the present border between Mozambique and Zambiawhile the Chewa lived north of the Chambwe. Another, more extensive, list of words and phrases of kele phd thesis language kele phd thesis made by the German missionary Sigismund Koelle who, working in Sierra Leone in West Africa, interviewed some former slaves and recorded vocabularies in their languages.
He published the results in a book called Polyglotta Africana in Among other slaves kele phd thesis one Mateke, kele phd thesis, who spoke what he calls kele phd thesis. Mateke's language is clearly an early form of Nyanja, but in a southern dialect. For example, the phrase zaka ziwiri "two years" in Mateke's speech was dzaka dziŵiriwhereas for Johannes Rebmann's informant Salimini, who came from the Lilongwe region, it was bzaka bziŵiri, kele phd thesis.
Apart from the few words recorded by Gamitto and Koelle, the first extensive record of the Chewa language was made by Johannes Rebmann in his Dictionary of the Kiniassa Languagepublished in but written in —4. Rebmann was a missionary living near Mombasa in Kenya, and he obtained his information from a Malawian slave, known by the Swahili name Salimini, who had been captured in Malawi some ten years kele phd thesis. The first grammar, A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa with Chinyanja—English and English—Chinyanja vocabularywas written by Alexander Riddel in Further early grammars and vocabularies include A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa by George Henry and M.
Woodward's A vocabulary of English—Chinyanja and Chinyanja—English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa The whole Bible was translated into the Likoma Island dialect of Nyanja by William Percival Johnson and published as Chikalakala choyera: ndicho Malangano ya Kale ndi Malangano ya Chapano in This has recently been reissued in a revised and slightly modernised version, kele phd thesis.
Another early grammar, concentrating on the Kasungu dialect of the language, kele phd thesis, was Mark Hanna Kele phd thesis ' A Grammar of Chichewa This book, the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American, was a work of cooperation between a young black PhD student and young student from Nyasaland studying in Chicago, kele phd thesis, Hastings Kamuzu Bandawho in was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi.
In recent years the language has changed considerably, and a dichotomy has grown between the traditional Chichewa of the villages and the language of city-dwellers.
Long or double vowels are sometimes found, e. áákúlu 'big' class 2kufúula 'to shout'. Chewa consonants can be plain i. followed by a vowellabialised i. followed by wor palatalised i.
followed by or combined with y :. In this scheme, the place of bya is taken by the kele phd thesis affricate bzaand the place of gya is taken by jaand kele phd thesis is replaced by sha. Another way of classifying the consonants is according to whether they are voiced, unvoiced, aspirated, nasal, or approximant :. Voiced and aspirated consonants, as well as [f] and [s], can also be preceded by a homorganic nasal:.
The spelling used here is that introduced in[25] which is the one generally in use in the Malawi at the present time, replacing kele phd thesis Chinyanja Orthography Rules of Like most other Bantu languages, Chewa is a tonal language; that is to say, the pitch of the syllables high or low plays an important role in it. Tone is used in various ways in the language.
First of all, each word has its own tonal pattern, for example: [43]. Usually there is only one high tone in a word generally on one of the last three syllablesor none. However, in compound words there can be more than one high tone, for example:.
A second important use of tone is in the verb. Each tense of the verb has its own characteristic tonal kele phd thesis negative tenses usually have a different pattern from positive ones. The recent past continuous and present continuous, on the other hand, have a tone on the third syllable:, kele phd thesis. Tones can also indicate whether a verb is being used in a main clause or in a dependent clause such as a relative clause: [45] [46]. A third use of tones in Chewa is to show phrasing and sentence intonation.
For example, immediately before a pause in the middle of a sentence the speaker's voice tends to rise up; this rise is referred to as a boundary tone. Conventionally, they are grouped into pairs of singular and plural. However, irregular pairings are also possible, especially with loanwords; for example, bánki 'bank', which takes the concords of class 9 in the singular, has a plural mabánki class kele phd thesis. When assigning nouns to a particular class, initially the prefix of the noun is used.
Where there is no prefix, or where the prefix is ambiguous, the concords see below are used as a guide to the noun class. For example, katúndu 'possessions' is put in class 1, since it takes the class 1 demonstrative uyu 'this'. Some nouns belong to one class only, kele phd thesis, e. tomáto 'tomato es ' class 1mowa 'beer' class 3malayá 'shirt s ' class 6kele phd thesis, udzudzú 'mosquito es ' class 14and do not change between singular and plural.
Despite this, such words can still be counted if appropriate: tomáto muwíri 'two tomatoes', mowa uwíri 'two beers', malayá amódzi 'one shirt', udzudzú umódzi 'one mosquito'. Class 11 Lu- is not found in Chewa. Pronouns, kele phd thesis, adjectives, and verbs have to show agreement with nouns in Chichewa. This is done by means of prefixes, kele phd thesis, for example:. Class 2 the plural of class 1 is often used for respect when referring to elders.
According to Corbett and Mtenje, kele phd thesis, a word like bambo 'father', even though it is singular, will take plural concords e. bambo a nga akuyenda, ndiku wa ona 'my father is walking, I see him' ; they note that to use the singular object-marker -mu- would kele phd thesis 'grossly impolite'.
There are 17 different noun classes, but because some of them share concords there are in fact only 12 distinct sets of prefixes.
For classes other than classes 1 and 2, a demonstrative is used instead of a freestanding pronoun, for example in class 6 ichi or icho. But forms prefixed by ná- and ndi- such as nácho and ndichó are found. The three pronominal adjectives yénse 'all', yékha 'alone', yémwe 'that same' or 'who' have the same pronominal concords yé- and w ó-this time as prefixes:.
In classes 2 and 6, ó- often becomes wó- e. wónse for ónse etc. The commonly used word áliyensé 'every' is compounded from the verb áli 'who is' and yénse 'all'. Both parts of the word have concords:.
As with other Bantu languages, all Chewa verbs have a prefix which agrees with the subject of the verb. In modern Chewa, the class 2 prefix formerly ŵa- has become a-identical with the prefix of class The relative pronoun améne 'who' and demonstrative améneyo use the same prefixes as a verb:.
The use of an object infix is not obligatory in Chewa for example, ndagula means 'I have bought them '. If used, it comes immediately before the verb root, and agrees with the object:. The object infix kele phd thesis classes 16, 17, and 18 is usually replaced by a suffix: ndaonámo 'I have seen inside it'. The same infix with verbs with the applicative suffix -ira represents the indirect object, e. ndamúlembera 'I have written to him'. Numeral concords are used with numbers -módzi 'one', -wíri 'two', -tátu 'three', -náyi 'four', -sanu 'five', and the words -ngáti?
The class 1 prefix m- becomes mu- before -wiri : tomáto kele phd thesis 'two tomatoes'. The demonstrative pronouns uja 'that one you know' and uno 'this one we are in' take the concords u- and a- in classes 1 and 2.
For semantic reasons, class 1 uno is rare:. The same concords w- derived from u- and a-kele phd thesis, combined with the vowel amake the subject prefix of the perfect tense.
In the plural the two prefixes a-a- combine into a single vowel:. The concords w- derived from u- and a- are also found in the word á 'of':. Wá 'of' can be combined with nouns or adverbs to make adjectives:. In the same way wá 'of' combines with the ku- of the infinitive to make verbal adjectives. The same w- and a- concords are found with the words -ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real'. In combination with these words the plural concord a- is converted to e- :, kele phd thesis.
Certain adjectives -kúlu 'big', -ng'óno 'small'; - a múna 'male', -kázi 'female'; -táli 'long', 'tall', -fúpi 'short'; -wisi 'fresh' have a double prefix, combining the possessive concord wá- and the number concord m- or mw- :. Early dictionaries, such as those of Rebmannand of Scott kele phd thesis Hetherwick, show that formerly kele phd thesis number of concords was greater. The following changes have taken place:. In addition, classes 4 and 9, and classes 15 and 17 have identical concords, so the total number of concord sets singular and plural is now twelve.
Tenses in Chichewa are differentiated in two ways, by their tense-marker or tense- infixand by their tonal pattern. Sometimes two tenses have the same tense-marker and differ in their tonal pattern alone. In the following examples, the tense-marker is underlined: [59] [60]. Tenses can be modified further by adding certain other infixes, kele phd thesis, kele phd thesis 'aspect-markers', kele phd thesis, after the tense-marker, kele phd thesis.
These are -má- 'always, usually' -ká- 'go and', -dzá 'come and' or 'in future', and -ngo- 'only', 'just'. These infixes can also be used on their own, as tense-markers in their own right compare the use of -ma- and -dza- in the list of tenses above.
For example:. Compound tenses, such as the following, kele phd thesis, are also found in Kele phd thesis [64]. Chichewa verbs with the exception of the imperative mood and infinitive begin with a prefix agreeing grammatically with the subject.
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Реакция американского Управления по борьбе с наркотиками (dea) на вышедшее из-под контроля использование mdma привела к решению о запрете вещества и помещении его в Список i [en] в году, что вызвало протест группы Kirundi, also known as Rundi, is a Bantu language spoken by some 9 million people in Burundi and adjacent parts of Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, as well as in blogger.com is the official language of Burundi. Kirundi is mutually intelligible with Kinyarwanda, an official language of Rwanda, and the two form part of the wider dialect continuum known as May 25, · Mindfulness has been a popular topic at the blogger.com, with frequent pieces on what mindfulness is, how it has been incorporated into therapy, and ways to practice mindfulness for adults, children, and teens.. For some people, it can take a lot of time and effort to understand what mindfulness is and how to effectively practice it
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